Chiang Mai Journal of Science

Antibacterial Activity and Photocatalytic Performance of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles from Morus alba L.

1. INTRODUCTION

     Metal oxide nanoparticles have attracted significant research focus as a consequence of their broad applicability, including uses ranging from environmental remediation to electronics, healthcare, and agriculture [1–5]. The metal oxide nanoparticles possess attractive physicochemical properties, including a small particle size, a special morphology, a controlled morphology, and an increasing surface reactivity. These properties give rise to unique optical, electrical, magnetic, and medium properties [6–9]. The standard method for the preparation of nanoparticles usually involves the use of chemical agents and high-energy methods, which increases concern about their possible toxicity and effects on the environment. Conversely, green synthesis has gained interest as a sustainable and environmentally beneficial substitute. Green synthesis involves utilizing natural sources, such as plants, microorganisms, and other bioresources, to produce nanoparticles. The reduction of metal ions is a key step in the biogenesis of nanoparticles, which can be created by a wide variety of medicinal plants. By avoiding the potential issues associated with biological production, this method enables the production of nanoparticles that are both beneficial and environmentally friendly [10]. This method not only reduces the use of hazardous chemicals, but it also has the potential to improve the biological activity of the nanoparticles using bioactive compounds from Thai traditional plants [11,12].
     Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have emerged as a promising candidate for diverse applications due to their unique physicochemical properties and inherent biocompatibility [13–17]. The synthesis of ZnO NPs has evolved over time, encompassing numerous methods such as chemical precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, and sol-gel techniques [18–20]. Despite their effectiveness, these methods often entail the use of hazardous reagents, high energy consumption, and complex procedures, raising environmental and safety concerns. As a result, the search for eco-friendly and sustainable synthesis approaches has gained traction in recent years.
     In this study, we explore the utilization of Morus alba L. (Moraceae), commonly known as mulberry, as a green source for the synthesis of ZnO NPs. The plant is found widely in China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Vietnam, Brazil, Africa, and others [21,22]. The leaves of M. alba are mainly used as food for silkworms. In many regions of the world, they are often consumed as vegetables or used as animal feed [23,24]. It has been revealed that M. alba has anti-hyperglycemic, antimicrobial, anti-hypertensive, anti-hyperlipidemic, and antioxidant properties [25]. It also acts as a skin tonic and protects the nervous system [26–28]. These bioactivities are mainly attributed to the presence of abundant phytochemicals such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and terpenoids in the leaf extract. These phytoconstituents also play a key role in nanoparticle formation, serving as natural reducing and capping agents. Polyphenolic compounds, flavonoids, and terpenoids in M. alba can donate electrons to Zn²⁺ ions, resulting in the formation of Zn(OH)₂, which then transforms into ZnO upon heating. Simultaneously, these biomolecules cap and stabilize the newly formed ZnO NPs, preventing aggregation and controlling particle size.
     Furthermore, ZnO NPs have gained significant attention due to their notable antibacterial and photocatalytic properties, which result from their wide band gap, high exciton binding energy, and strong redox potential. The antibacterial activity of ZnO NPs mainly arises from the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These reactive species cause oxidative stress, leading to disruption of bacterial membranes, protein denaturation, and DNA damage [29,30]. In addition to their antimicrobial effects, ZnO NPs exhibit excellent photocatalytic performance in the degradation of organic pollutants and dyes under ultraviolet or sunlight irradiation. When photons exceeding the band-gap energy are absorbed, ZnO generates photo-excited electrons (e⁻) in the conduction band and holes (h⁺) in the valence band. These charge carriers initiate redox reactions with adsorbed oxygen and water molecules, producing highly reactive radicals (•OH, •O₂^-) that efficiently oxidize and mineralize organic contaminants such as methylene blue and methyl orange [31]. Therefore, this research focuses on the antibacterial and photocatalytic properties of biosynthesized ZnO NPs mediated by M. alba leaf extract. This is the first report of biosynthesized ZnO NPs from M. alba leaf, and it shows promise as an antibacterial agent and photocatalyst.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials
     Plant Collection: The leaves of M. alba were collected in November 2021 from a local conservation forest in Mahasarakham province, Thailand. The plant was identified by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Surapon Saensouk, Mahasarakham University, Thailand. The voucher specimen (no. SPMSU004) was deposited at Mahasarakham University Herbarium, Thailand.

2.2 Methods
     Plant Extraction: Air-dried leaves of M. alba were ground into a fine powder. The leaf powder (10 g) was soaked in 100 mL of 40% ethanol:DI water and left for 24 hours at room temperature. The extract was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 minutes, then filtered and stored in a refrigerator for further use.
     ZnO NPs from zinc acetate dihydrate: The M. alba leaf extract (20 mL) was slowly mixed with 0.2 M zinc acetate dihydrate solution (80 mL), and then the solution was adjusted to pH 12 by using 2 M NaOH. The selected concentration (0.2 M) and alkaline pH 12 were optimized based on preliminary trials and a previous report [32], which showed efficient nucleation and controlled ZnO formation under basic conditions. The reaction mixture was heated at 65 °C for 1 hour, and stirring was continued for 2 hours. The crystalline ZnO NPs (Ma_ZnO_A) were obtained and washed with distilled water several times until pH 7 was reached. Then, ZnO NPs were completely dried in a hot air oven at 65 °C. No calcination step was required for the acetate precursor, as ZnO formation was completed under the strong alkaline and heating conditions of the synthesis. The collected powder was utilized for further characterization and examination.
     ZnO NPs from zinc nitrate hexahydrate: The M. alba leaf extract (20 mL) was slowly mixed with 0.2 M zinc nitrate hexahydrate solution (80 mL), and then the solution was adjusted to pH 12 by using 2 M NaOH. The reaction mixture was heated at 65 °C for 1 hour, and stirring was continued for 2 hours. The crystalline ZnO NPs (Ma_ZnO_N) were obtained and washed with distilled water several times until pH 7 was reached. ZnO NPs were completely dried in a hot air oven at 65 °C and calcined at 400 °C for 2 hours before being collected and packed separately for further characterization.
     ZnO from zinc acetate dihydrate and zinc nitrate hexahydrate: ZnO NPs were also synthesized by the same procedures described above without the addition of M. alba leaf extract, using zinc acetate dihydrate (ZnO_A) and zinc nitrate hexahydrate (ZnO_N) as precursors. The resulting powders were washed, dried, and calcined under identical conditions.
     Bacterial strain and growth conditions: Six bacterial strains consisting of Escherichia coli (EPEC), Escherichia coli (O157:H7), Enterobacter aerogenes, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Vibrio cholerae were analyzed for antibacterial activity of ZnO NPs. The bacteria were cultured in Tryptic Soy Broth at 37 °C overnight before being used in antibacterial activity.
     Antibacterial activity: The antibacterial activity of ZnO NPs from M. alba was evaluated using a disc diffusion assay and represented as the diameter of the inhibition zone in millimeters. The disc diffusion assay of all experiments was performed according to CLSI guidelines. An overnight culture of each bacterial strain was prepared in fresh Tryptic Soy Broth to a yield of approximately 106 CFU/mL. A total of 200 μL of the cultures was spread on a Mueller–Hinton Agar plate, and the plates were dried at RT for 30 minutes. The synthesized ZnO NPs were prepared with DMSO to a final concentration of 10 and 50 mg/mL. Gentamycin (0.05 mg/mL) and DMSO were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The antibacterial activity of the ZnO NPs was compared to that of the gentamycin standard. Sterile paper discs with 6 mm diameter were loaded with 20 μL of each sample and placed on the inoculated plates. The plates were incubated at 37 °C for 18–24 hours, and the diameters of the inhibition zone (mm) were then measured and expressed as the antibacterial activity. All experiments were performed in triplicate (n = 3). Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD).
     Photocatalytic activity: The photodegradation of methylene blue (MB) was tested in a 250 mL beaker batch reactor at room temperature, atmospheric pressure, and under solar light irradiation during 3 hours on each sunny day (between 10:00 am – 03:00 pm). A 100 mL stock solution of MB was prepared at an initial concentration of 10 ppm. For each photocatalytic degradation experiment, 25 mL of the stock solution was transferred into a separate reaction vessel and mixed with the ZnO NPs sample. The amounts of Ma_ZnO_A used were 2.5, 5, 10, and 15 mg.
     The photocatalytic reaction was initiated by adding Ma_ZnO_A catalyst into the MB solution in a dark homemade box and under solar light. Before illumination, each photocatalytic experiment was preceded by a 15-minute dark adsorption period to allow adsorption–desorption equilibrium between methylene blue dye molecules and the surface of the ZnO nanoparticles. The reaction mixture was continuously stirred, and aliquots were collected at designated time intervals of 15, 30, 45, 60, 120, and 180 minutes. The reaction was then terminated by filtering the mixture to separate the Ma_ZnO_A catalyst from the solution. The transparent solution was then analyzed for the residual MB concentration by using the UV–Visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy and measured at 664 nm. In terms of the effect of pH and initial MB concentration on the MB degradation efficiency, the different pH and MB concentrations were varied as mentioned above.
     The photocatalytic degradation of MB by Ma_ZnO_A nanoparticles was analyzed using the pseudo-first-order kinetic model:

\(\ln\!\left(\frac{C_0}{C_t}\right)=k_{\text{app}}t\)

where:
\(C_0\) is the initial concentration of the dye at time \(t=0\),
\(C_t\) is the concentration of the dye at time \(t\),
\(k_{\text{app}}\) is the apparent first-order rate constant (min\(^{-1}\)), and
\(t\) is the reaction time (min).

     where \(k_{\text{app}}\) represents the apparent rate constant (min\(^{-1}\)). The plots of \(\ln(C_0/C_t)\) versus time exhibited a good linear relationship (R\(^2 = 0.987\)), indicating that the MB degradation followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. The calculated rate constants were 0.0341 min\(^{-1}\) for Ma_ZnO_A and 0.0216 min\(^{-1}\) for ZnO_A.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

     
     The average particle sizes of ZnO observed through SEM are typically larger than the crystallite sizes measured by XRD. This discrepancy arises because ZnO nanoparticles often form polycrystalline aggregates, which are composed of multiple nanocrystallites. Techniques like SEM and TEM generally assess the entire aggregate as a single particle. In contrast, the coherence of XRD can be affected by factors such as lattice strain, defects, or dislocations, resulting in a lower apparent crystallite size while not altering the overall particle dimensions. Moreover, grain boundaries between crystallites contribute to incoherent X-ray scattering, enabling XRD to detect only individual coherent domains. Additionally, the presence of surface adsorption layers, such as organic surfactants or oxide coatings, can lead to an increase in the size measured by SEM, even though these layers do not influence XRD diffraction results.

     Synthesized Ma_ZnO_A were examined with X-ray diffraction (XRD) to learn more about their crystal structure, phase purity, and average particle size. The diffraction patterns at the 2θ angles of 31.97, 34.42, 36.07, 47.36, 56.42, 62.69, 67.77, and 68.91, which were related to lattice plane (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (112), and (201) respectively, as shown in Figure 3. These values also agree well with previously reported ZnO diffraction data [2,7,36]. Therefore, the XRD data can support for the crystallization of ZnO NPs. The observed XRD pattern is comparable to the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS No. 36-1451) [36]. The average crystallite size of the produced ZnO NPs was determined to be 30.54 nm, as detailed in Table 1. The Debye-Scherrer formula was used to calculate the sizes of synthesized Ma_ZnO_A.

     The photocatalytic activity of Ma_ZnO_A for MB degradation under both dark and solar light conditions in Figure 5 clearly expressed that the MB removal efficiency under dark conditions was much lower than under solar light. The MB removal efficiency of Ma_ZnO_A in dark conditions was less than 10%, and the MB adsorption removal level was not significantly different after loading 2.5 mg to 15 mg of Ma_ZnO_A into 25 mL of MB. It confirmed that the adsorption removal capacity of Ma_ZnO_A was limited. However, after the MB removal measurement was studied under solar light, the MB removal efficiency increased from 35% to 70% after adding 2.5 mg to 15 mg of Ma_ZnO_A to 25 mL of MB [37]. This could imply that the prepared Ma_ZnO_A exhibited high photocatalytic properties. This plant-mediated Ma_ZnO_A could be one of the promising photocatalysts to degrade other poisonous organic compounds.

4. CONCLUSIONS

     In this study, we successfully synthesized plant-mediated ZnO NPs using a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and straightforward method involving M. alba leaf extract. The results of our research clearly demonstrate the pivotal role of M. alba leaf extract in the formation of ZnO NPs. After performing synthesis, various-sized nano zinc oxide particles were formed, with an average particle size of 30.54 nm. The confirmation of ZnO size and structure was achieved through SEM analysis, while the purity and composition were determined using EDX studies. Additionally, the stretching and bonding characteristics were analyzed using FTIR spectroscopy, and the shape and average size of the produced nanoparticles were analyzed using XRD analysis. The ZnO NPs exhibited remarkable antimicrobial activity against a range of pathogenic microorganisms, including E. coli (EPEC), E. coli (O157:H7), E. aerogenes, P. mirabilis, S. aureus, and V. cholerae, compared to a standard antibiotic (gentamycin). As a result of these findings, the biosynthesized ZnO from M. alba leaf extract has the potential to become a promising next-generation antibiotic capable of combating multidrug-resistant pathogens. The MB removal performance was investigated under solar light, showing an increased efficiency after the addition of ZnO NPs. This suggests that ZnO NPs could be a promising photocatalyst for degrading other toxic organic compounds. Consequently, this study represents the first report on the plant-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using M. alba leaf extract as a natural reducing and capping agent. This sustainable and non-toxic approach produces nanocrystalline ZnO with enhanced antibacterial efficacy against pathogenic strains and superior photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes under solar irradiation. The dual functionality of the biosynthesized ZnO highlights its potential for both biomedical and environmental remediation applications.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

     This research was financially supported by Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI). The authors also acknowledge the Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry (PERCH-CIC), Office of the Higher Education Commission, Ministry of Education, Thailand. We are grateful to Asst. Prof. Dr. Ansaya Thonpho, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahasarakham University, Thailand, for her valuable advice regarding antibacterial activity testing.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Natrada Phumprakhon: Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Visualization, Writing – Original draft. Mongkol Nontakitticharoen: Validation, Visualization, Supervision, Writing – review & ediiting. Angkhana Chuajedton: Resources, Validation. Sirinuch Loiha: Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Writing – review & ediiting. Ratchaneekorn Pilasombat: Validation, Supervision. Prawit Nuengmatcha: Validation, Supervision. Surapon Saensouk: Resources, Supervision. Siripit Pitchuanchom: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & ediiting.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

     The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.

DECLARATION OF USE OF GENERATIVE AI

     During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI) solely for language editing and clarity improvements. The tool was not used to generate or modify experimental data, results, or citations. All content was carefully reviewed and approved by the authors, who take full responsibility for the final manuscript.

REFERENCES

[1] Gupta M., Tomar R.S., Kaushik S., Mishra R.K. and Sharma D., Effective antimicrobial activity of green ZnO nanoparticles of Catharanthus roseus. Frontiers in Microbiology, 2018; 9: 1. DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02030.

[2] Jobie F.N., Ranjbar M., Moghaddam A.H. and Kiani M., Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Amygdalus scoparia Spach stem bark extract and their applications as an alternative antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-diabetic agent. Advanced Powder Technology, 2021; 32: 2043–2052. DOI 10.1016/j.apt.2021.04.014.

[3] Mustafa R., Nazir A., Abbas M. and Iqbal M., Oxides of iron and zinc prepared with use of waste biomass from Allium sativum: Sustainable antineoplastic agents against HT29 and HepG2 cells. Chemistry Select, 2025; 10(21): e05804. DOI 10.1002/slct.202405804.

[4] Ali F., Ali A., Ud Din G.M., Younas U., Nazir A., Akyürekli S., et al., Silver and zinc oxide decorated rGO nanocomposites as efficient electrocatalysts towards oxygen evolution reactions under alkaline conditions. Diamond and Related Materials, 2024; 148: 111378. DOI 10.1016/j.diamond.2024.111378.

[5] Manickam V., Mani G., Muthuvel R., Pushparaj H., Jayabalan J., Pandit S.S., et al., Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles and it's in vitro anti-bacterial, anti-biofilm, free radical scavenging and mushroom tyrosinase efficacy evaluation. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 2024; 162: 112199. DOI 10.1016/j.inoche.2024.112199.

[6] Khanh T.V., Tu Linh N.T., Trinh P.H., Phung H.K., Tung N.T. and Trung T.T., Synthesis of ecofriendly silver nanoparticles using Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt extract: Experimental and theoretical studies. Chiang Mai Journal of Science, 2022; 49(5): 1324–1331. DOI 10.12982/CMJS.2022.082.

[7] Younas M.U., Iqbal M., Ahmad N., Iqbal S., Kausar A., Nazir A., et al., Biogenic synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using NARC G1 garlic (Allium sativum) extract, their photocatalytic activity for dye degradation and antioxidant activity of the extract. Results in Chemistry, 2025; 13: 102035. DOI 10.1016/j.rechem.2025.102035.

[8] Yasir M., Akram F., Masih M., Jamil N., Mnif W., Alkhaloofa F., et al., Quantum-mechanical characterization of (ZnO)_n nanoclusters and their coronene composites. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society, 2024; 101(12): 101433. DOI 10.1016/j.jics.2024.101433.

[9] Ahmad A., Khawar M.R., Ahmad I., Javed M.H., Ahmad A., Rauf A., et al., Green synthesis of ZnO nanocubes from Ceropegia omissa H. Huber extract for photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol an under visible light to mitigate water pollution. Environmental Research, 2024; 249(15): 118093. DOI 10.1016/j.envres.2023.118093.

[10] Falak T., Ajay K., Manik S., Rasdeep K., Satwinderjeet K., Moyad S., et al., Green synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles induced apoptosis in human cervical (HeLa) and breast (MCF-7) cancer cell lines. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 2023; 35: 1979. DOI 10.14233/ajchem.2023.27942.

[11] Jayachandran A., Aswathy T.R. and Achuthsankar S.N., Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Cayratia pedata leaf extract. Biochemistry and Biophysics Reports, 2021; 26: 100995. DOI 10.1016/j.bbrep.2021.100995.

[12] Ying S., Guan Z., Ofoegbu P.C., Clubb P., Rico C., He F., et al., Green synthesis of nanoparticles: Current developments and limitations. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 2022; 26: 102336. DOI 10.1016/j.eti.2022.102336.

[13] Raha S. and Ahmaruzzaman Md., ZnO nanostructured materials and their potential applications: Progress, challenges and perspectives. Nanoscale Advances, 2022; 4: 1868-1925. DOI 10.1039/D1NA00880C.

[14] Sirelkhatim A., Mahmud S., Seeni A., Kaus N.H.M., Ann L.C., Bakhori S.K.M., et al., Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: Antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nano-Micro Letters, 2015; 7: 219–242. DOI 10.1007/s40820-015-0040-x.

[15] Jin S.E. and Jin H.E., Antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide nano/microparticles and their combinations against pathogenic microorganisms for biomedical applications: From physicochemical characteristics to pharmacological aspects. Nanomaterials, 2021; 11(2): 263. DOI 10.3390/nano11020263.

[16] Mendes C.R., Dilarri G., Forsan C.F., Sapata V.M.R., Lopes P.R.M., Moraes P.B., et al., Antibacterial action and target mechanisms of zinc oxide nanoparticles against bacterial pathogens. Scientific Reports, 2022; 12: 2658. DOI 10.1038/s41598-022-06657-y.

[17] Abbas M., Mumtaz A., Mohammed O.A., Zafar K., Ahmed I., Iqbal M.T., et al., Green-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles using methanolic extract of Moringa oleifera Leaves: Characterization and evaluation of wound healing efficacy. Journal of Pharmaceutical Innovation, 2025; 20: 112. DOI 10.1007/s12247-025-10012-9.

[18] Krishna S.B.N., Jakmunee J., Mishra Y.K. and Prakash J., ZnO based 0–3D diverse nano-architectures, films and coatings for biomedical applications. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 2024; 12: 2950-2984. DOI 10.1039/D4TB00184B.

[19] Jayabalan J., Paramasivam S., Jayaseelan C., Paramanathan B., Mani G. and Jang H.T., Phytogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using Solanum xanthocarpum fruit extract: Its evaluation of photocatalytic activity, molecular docking and biomedical applications. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 2025; 173: 113792. DOI 10.1016/j.inoche.2024.113792.

[20] Jayabalan J., Mani G., Krishnan N., Pernabas J., Devadoss J.M. and Jang H.T., Green biogenic synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Pseudomonas putida culture and its In vitro antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 2019; 21: 101327. DOI 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101327.

[21] Dat N.T., Binh P.T.X., Van M.C., Huong H.T. and Lee J.J., Cytotoxic prenylated flavonoids from Morus alba. Fitoterapia, 2010; 81(8): 1224-7. DOI 10.1016/j.fitote.2010.08.006.

[22] Chen C., Razali U.H.M., Saikim F.H., Mahyudin A. and Noor N.Q.I.M., Morus alba L. Plant: Bioactive compounds and potential as a functional food ingredient. Foods, 2021; 10(3): 689. DOI 10.3390/foods10030689.

[23] Doi K., Kojima T., Makino M., Kimura Y. and Fujimoto Y., Studies on the constituents of the leaves of Morus alba L. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 2001; 49(2): 151-153. DOI 10.1248/cpb.49.151.

[24] Devi B., Sharma N., Kumar D. and Jeet K., Morus alba Linn: A Phytopharmacology review. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2013; 5: 14-18. DOI 10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.09.015.

[25] Saensouk S., Senavongse R., Papayrata C. and Chumroenphat T., Evaluation of color, phytochemical compounds and antioxidant activities of mulberry fruit (Morus alba L.) during ripening. Horticulture Journal, 2022; 8: 1146. DOI 10.3390/horticulturae8121146.

[26] Butt M.S., Nazir A., Sultan M.T. and Schroen K., Morus alba L. nature's functional tonic. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 2008; 19: 505-512. DOI 10.1016/j.tifs.2008.06.002.

[27] Sanghi S.B. and Mushtaq S., Phytopharmacological activity of Morus alba Linn. extracts – a review. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, 2017; 6: 10-19. DOI 10.1007/s00210-023-02434-4.

[28] Singh R., Bagachi A., Semwal A., Kaur S. and Bharadwaj A., Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Morus alba Linn.: A review. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 2013; 7(9): 461-469. DOI 10.5897/JMPR012.1079.

[29] Amna S., Shahrom M., Azman S., Noor Haida M.K., Ling C.A., Siti Khadijah M.B., et al., Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: Antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nano-Micro Letters, 2015; 7: 219–242. DOI 10.1007/s40820-015-0040-x.

[30] Souad A.Z., Anne P., Stéphane B., Marie L.P., Stéphanie R., Hynd R., et al., Antibacterial and photocatalytic properties of ZnO nanostructure decorated coatings. Coatings, 2024; 14: 41. DOI 10.3390/coatings14010041.

[31] Alishay B., Mohsin S. and Sandeep P., A Review of visible-light-active zinc oxide photocatalysts for environmental application. Catalysts, 2025; 15(2): 100. DOI 10.3390/catal15020100.

[32] Umamaheswari A., Prabu S.L., John S.A. and Puratchikody A., Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using leaf extracts of Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus and evaluation of their anticancer property in A549 cell lines. Biotechnology Reports, 2021; 29: e00595. DOI 10.1016/j.btre.2021.e00595.

[33] Solabomi O.O., Yasmine A., Muchen Z., Hatem F., Xianxian H., Ezzeldin I., et al., Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using different plant extracts and their antibacterial activity against Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine and Biotechnology, 2019; 47(1): 341-352. DOI 10.1080/21691401.2018.1557671.

[34] Faisal S., Jan H., Shah S.A., Shah S., Khan A., Akbar M.T., et al., Green synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles using aqueous fruit extracts of Myristica fragrans: Their characterizations and biological and environmental applications. ACS Omega, 2021; 6: 9709-9722. DOI 10.1021/acsomega.1c00310.

[35] Ghamsari S.M., Alamdari S., Han W. and Park H., Impact of nanostructured thin ZnO film in ultraviolet protection. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 2016; 12: 207-216. DOI 10.2147/IJN.S118637.

[36] Talam S., Karumuri S.R. and Gunnam N., Synthesis, characterization, and spectroscopic properties of ZnO nanoparticles. ISRN Nanomaterials, 2012; 6: 372505. DOI 10.5402/2012/372505.

[37] Shaha A.A., Bhatt M.A., Tahirae A., Chandioa A.D., Channaa I.A., Sahitod A.G., et al., Facile synthesis of copper doped ZnO nanorods for the efficient photo degradation of methylene blue and methyl orange. Ceramics International, 2020; 46: 9997-10005. DOI 10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.12.024.

[38] Mohamed R.M., Mkhalid I.A., Baeissa E.S and Al-Rayyani M.A., Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Fe/ZnO/SiO2 nanoparticles under visible light. Journal of Nanotechnology, 2012; 5: 329082. DOI 10.1155/2012/329082.

[39] Modi S., Yadav V.K., Ali D., Choudhary N., Alarifi S., Sahoo D.K., et al., Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue from aqueous solutions by using nano-ZnO/kaolin-clay-based nanocomposite. Water, 2023; 15(22): 3915. DOI 10.3390/w15223915.

[40] Onwubiko V., Matsushita Y., Elshehy E.A and El-Khouly M.E., Facile synthesis of TiO₂–carbon composite doped nitrogen for efficient photodegradation of noxious methylene blue dye. RSC Advances, 2024; 14: 34298-34310. DOI 10.1039/d4ra05444j.

[41] Amir A., Kaveh K., Roozbahani P.A. and Farahani Z., Photochemical synthesis of CdS semiconductor by gas condensate as sulfur source, and evaluation of its photocatalytic property in the degradation of methylene blue dye as a case study. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 2025; 12: 101241. DOI 10.1016/j.cscee.2025.101241.

[42] Kumar S.A., Govindhan T., Selvakumar K., Yusuf K., Mahalingam S., Tae H.O., et al., Fabrication of N-doped ZnO for evaluation of photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue, methyl orange and improved supercapacitor efficiency under redox-active electrolyte. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 2025; 186: 109052. DOI 10.1016/j.mssp.2024.109052.

[43] Dien N.D., Ha Pham T.T., Vu X.H., Xuan V.T., Thuy Nguyen T.T., Trang T.T., et al., High photocatalytic efficiency of a ZnO nanoplate/Fe₂O₃ nanospindle hybrid using visible light for methylene blue degradation. RSC Advances, 2024; 14: 28244-28259. DOI 10.1039/d4ra04230a.

Related Articles

Red Onion Peels Extract: A Food Waste for Silver Nanoparticles Synthesis and Potential Application in Air Cleaning Devices
DOI: 10.12982/CMJS.2025.012.

Sakoolrud Raunmoon, Varintorn Bangwiset, Wanrudee Kaewmesri, Arthid Thim-uam, Paideang Khwanchai, Chee O. Too and Widsanusan Chartarrayawadee

Vol.52 No.2 (March 2025)
Research Article View: 1,034 Download: 304